Explorers+of+the+Sea

James Cook's Pacific Ocean exploration (1768-1779)
The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first voyage is shown in ** red **, second voyage in ** green **, and third voyage in ** blue **. The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line. British [|explorer] [|James Cook] was the first to map [|Newfoundland] prior to making three voyages to the [|Pacific Ocean] during which he held to have achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of [|Australia] and the [|Hawaiian Islands], although oral tradition seems to point towards a far earlier Spanish expedition having achieved the latter, as well as the first recorded [|circumnavigation] of [|New Zealand]. [|[1]] Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to European knowledge of the area. Several islands such as [|Sandwich Islands] ( [|Hawaii] ) were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate [|navigational] charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement. To create accurate maps, [|latitude] and [|longitude] need to be known. [|Navigators] had been able to work out [|latitude] accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the [|sun] or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a [|backstaff] or [|quadrant]. [|Longitude] was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the [|surface of the earth]. [|Earth] turns a full 360 [|degrees] relative to the sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every [|hour], or 1 degree every 4 [|minutes]. Cook gathered accurate [|longitude] measurements during his first voyage with the help of astronomer [|Charles Green] and by using the newly published [|Nautical Almanac] tables, via the [|lunar distance] method — measuring the [|angular distance] from the [|moon] to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the [|Royal Observatory, Greenwich], and comparing that to his [|local time] determined via the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars. On his second voyage Cook used the K1 chronometer made by [|Larcum Kendall]. It was a copy of the [|H4] [|clock] made by [|John Harrison], which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at [|sea] when used on the ship //Deptford's// journey to [|Jamaica] , 1761–1762. Cook was the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly concluded there was a relationship among all the people in the Pacific, despite their being separated by thousands of miles of ocean (see [|Malayo-Polynesian languages] ). In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of colonization. [|[2]][|[3]] James Cook also came up with the theory that Polynesians originated from Asia, which was later proved to be correct by scientist [|Bryan Sykes]. [|[4]] Cook was accompanied by many scientists, whose observations and discoveries added to the importance of the voyages. [|Joseph Banks], a [|botanist] , went on the first voyage along with fellow botanist [|Daniel Solander] from Sweden. Between them they collected over 3,000 plant species. Banks became one of the strongest promoters of the settlement of Australia by the British, based on his own personal observations. There were several artists on the first voyage. [|Sydney Parkinson] was involved in many of the drawings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British [|botanists]. [|[2]] Cook's second expedition included the artist [|William Hodges], who produced notable [|landscape paintings] of [|Tahiti] , [|Easter Island] , and other locations. His contributions were recognized during his era.

[ [|edit] ] Alexander von Humboldt (1799-1804)
Alexander von Humboldt's Latin American expedition Between 1799 and 1804, [|Alexander von Humboldt] a [|German] [|naturalist] and [|explorer], traveled extensively in [|Latin America] , under the protection of king [|Charles VII of Spain]. Humboldt intended to investigate how the [|forces of nature] interact with one another and find out about the unity of nature. His expedition may be regarded as having laid the foundation of the sciences of [|physical geography] and [|meteorology], exploring and describing for the first time in a manner generally considered to be a modern scientific point of view. As a consequence of his explorations, von Humboldt described many geographical features and species of life that were hitherto unknown to Europeans and his quantitative work on [|botanical] [|geography] was foundational to the field of [|biogeography]. By his delineation of "isothermal lines", in 1817 he devised the means of comparing the climatic conditions of various countries, and to the detection of the more complicated law governing atmospheric disturbances in higher latitudes; he discovered the decrease in intensity of Earth's [|magnetic field] from the poles to the equator. His attentive study of the [|volcanoes] of the [|New World], showed that they fell naturally into linear groups, presumably corresponding with vast subterranean fissures, and he demonstrated the [|igneous] origin of rocks. He was one of the first to propose that the lands bordering the [|Atlantic Ocean] were once joined (South America and Africa in particular). The details and findings of Humboldt’s journey were published in an enormous set of 30 volumes over 21 years, his //Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equatorial Regions of the New Continent//. Later, his five-volume work, //Kosmos: Entwurf einer physichen Weltbeschreibung// (“Cosmos. Sketch for a Physical Description of the Universe”) (1845), attempted to unify the various branches of scientific

The voyage of the //Beagle// In December 1831 departed a British expedition under captain [|Robert FitzRoy], on board of the [|HMS //Beagle//] , with the main purpose of making a [|hydrographic survey] of the coasts of [|South America] using calibrated chronometers and [|astronomical] observations, producing charts for naval war or commerce. The [|longitude] of [|Rio de Janeiro] was to be found and also made geological survey of a circular coral [|atoll] in the [|Pacific ocean]. FitzRoy thought of the advantages of having an expert in [|geology] on board, and sought a [|gentleman] [|naturalist] who could be his companion. The young graduate [|Charles Darwin] had hoped to see the tropics before becoming a [|parson], and took this opportunity. The //Beagle// sailed across the [|Atlantic Ocean] then carried out detailed hydrographic surveys, returning via [|Tahiti] and [|Australia], having circumnavigated the Earth. Originally planned to last two years, the expedition lasted almost five. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land. [|[5]] Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. By the end of the expedition he had already made his name as a geologist and [|fossil] collector, and the publication of his journal, known as [|The Voyage of the Beagle], gave him wide renown as a writer. At [|Punta Alta] he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that [|species] were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of [|evolution] by [|natural selection]. [|Kingfisher] from [|The Malay Archipelago]. Wallace collected more than 125,000 specimens, a thousand new [|species] to science.

[ [|edit] ] Alfred Russel Wallace Amazon and Malay explorations (1848-1862)
In 1848, inspired by the chronicles of earlier traveling naturalists [|[6]] British naturalist [|Alfred Russel Wallace] and [|Henry Bates] left for [|Brazil] with the intention of collecting insects and other animal specimens in the [|Amazon rainforest]. Wallace charted the [|Rio Negro] for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on peoples, geography, flora, and fauna. [|[7]] On July 1852, while returning to the UK, the ship's cargo caught fire and all the specimens he had collected were lost. [|[8]][|[9]] From 1854 to 1862, Wallace traveled again through the [|Malay Archipelago] to collect specimens for sale and study nature. He collected more than 125,000 specimens, more than a thousand of them representing [|species] new to science. [|[10]] His observations of the marked differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the [|Wallace line], that divides [|Indonesia] into two distinct parts: one with animals closely related to those of Australia, and one in which the species are largely of Asian origin. He become an expert on [|biogeography], [|[11]] creating the basis for the [|zoogeographic regions] still in use today. While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on [|natural selection]. His interest resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity, like deforestation and [|invasive species]. In 1878, he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion in tropical climates, like the extensive clearing of [|rainforest] for coffee cultivation in Ceylon ( [|Sri Lanka] ) and [|India]. [|[12]] Accounts of his travels were published in // [|The Malay Archipelago] //in 1869, one of the most popular and influential journals of scientific exploration Many details about Carrasco's life are unknown. He was educated at the Academy of San Telmo in Spain, sometime between 1775 and 1780. Under the command of [|Francisco Antonio Mourelle] he served in the [|Philippines] and then, in 1784, traveled to the Pacific Northwest. [|[1]] [ [|hide] ] *  [|1 1790 voyage under Quimper]
 * Juan Carrasco** was a [|Spanish] naval officer, [|explorer], and [|navigator] . He is remembered mainly for his work in the [|Pacific Northwest] during the late 18th century. He was second in command of the 1791 voyage of [|José María Narváez] , the first European exploration of the [|Strait of Georgia].
 * == Contents ==
 * [|2 1791 voyage under Eliza]
 * [|3 Legacy]
 * [|4 References] ||

[ [|edit] ] 1790 voyage under Quimper
In 1790 Carrasco served as a pilot on the // [|Princesa Real] //, under the command of [|Manuel Quimper]. Also on board was the pilot [|Gonzalo López de Haro]. Dispatched by [|Francisco de Eliza] from the Spanish post at [|Nootka Sound], with orders to explore the [|Strait of Juan de Fuca] , the ship set sail on May 31, 1790. They rapidly passed the furthest point of previous exploration, which had only penetrated the westernmost part. They spent several days anchored in [|Sooke Basin], a deep bay on [|Vancouver Island]. After leaving Sooke, the voyage continued east, passing between Race Rocks and Vancouver Island and anchoring near present-day [|Esquimalt], at the shoreline today called Royal Roads. Quimper named Royal Roads //Rada de Eliza// ("Rada" meaning [|roadstead] ). [|[2]] On July 4, 1790, the Spanish left Esquimalt and crossed to the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, anchoring near [|Dungeness Spit]. The ship //Princesa Real// remained at anchor while boats were used to explore the eastern end of the Strait and the maze of islands and channels they found there. In this manner the Spanish reached the vicinity of [|Admiralty Inlet], the entrance to [|Puget Sound] , and noted a larger channel leading north (today called [|Rosario Strait] ). They also found [|Deception Pass], which was named //Boca de Flon//. The expedition had limited resources and time. Quimper decided not to enter these channels but instead to explore the area near Dungeness Spit more thoroughly. [|Protection Island] was found and given the name //Isla de Carrasco//, in honor of Juan Carrasco. Today's [|Port Discovery] was entered and named //Puerto de Quadra//, for [|Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra], the commander of Spanish naval operations in the North Pacific, based at [|San Blas] [|[2]] In mid-July Quimper consulted with his pilots, Carrasco and Haro, as to whether they should conduct further explorations and risk a difficult return to Nootka, or return immediately. The decision was made to return. On the way another large channel leading north was found and named after the pilot Haro. It is still known as [|Haro Strait] today, and is the route of the international boundary between the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. While anchored at Royal Roads a party was sent ashore for water, in the process finding Esquimalt Harbour. Quimper named the harbour //Cordova// after a high official of the Spanish navy. //Princesa Real// was the first European ship to enter Esquimalt Harbour. The expedition then crossed to the southern side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and sailed west along the coast, reaching [|Neah Bay] by August. [|[2]] While in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Quimper performed several formal ceremonies claiming Spanish possession of the region, at Sooke, Royal Roads near Esquimalt, Dungeness Spit, and Neah Bay. [|[2]] At [|Cape Flattery] Quimper led the //Princesa Real// north to Nootka Sound. They reached Nootka by August 10 but were unable to enter due to contrary winds and fog. After several failed attempts, Quimper consulted with Carrasco and Haro and decided to sail south to [|Monterey, California]. They arrived at Monterey on September 1, 1790. Another Spanish ship, the //San Carlos// soon arrived, sailing south from Alaska. The two ships sailed together to San Blas, Mexico, arriving on November 13, 1790.

[ [|edit] ] 1791 voyage under Eliza
Spanish map of Clayoquot Sound made during the 1791 exploration voyage of Francisco de Eliza In 1791 Carrasco took part in an exploratory expedition led by Ship Lieutenant [|Francisco de Eliza], then the new commandant at Nootka Sound. Two ships were used, the //San Carlos//, under Eliza, and the smaller schooner //Santa Saturnina//. Carrasco served as a pilot on the//Santa Saturnina//, at first as second-in-command under [|José María Narváez] and later as the schooner's commander. The ships left Nootka Sound on May 4, 1791. [|[3]] The //Santa Saturnina// was 36 ft (11 m) long, with a [|beam] of 12 ft (3.7 m), and a [|draft] of 5 ft (1.5 m), and was equipped with eight oars. [|[4]] After exploring [|Clayoquot Sound] for about two weeks, the //San Carlos// sailed into the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Esquimalt. The //Santa Saturnina// spent several weeks exploring [|Barkley Sound], which was named //Boca de Carrasco// in honor of Juan Carrasco. The two ships rejoined at Esquimalt on June 14, 1791. [|[3]] Eliza instructed pilot [|Juan Pantoja y Arriaga] to explore Haro Strait with the //Santa Saturnina// and a longboat. They entered the strait on June 14 and rapidly passed between Vancouver Island and [|San Juan Island]. On June 15 they turned northeast and passed along the shores of [|Pender Island] and [|Saturna Island] before entering the open water of the Strait of Georgia, which the Spanish named //Canal de Nuestra Señora del Rosario//. The party sailed east and soon reached the vicinity of [|Lummi Island] at the northern end of Rosario Strait. From there the party returned to Esquimalt the way they had come, bringing word of the Strait of Georgia to Eliza. [|[3]] Eliza's base of operations was then shifted to the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca at Puerto de Quadra (Port Discovery). The //San Carlos// remained anchored there while the //Santa Saturnina//, under Narváez, set out to explore Rosario Strait. Carrasco was Narváez's pilot, second in command. They set out on July 1, 1791. Quickly passing through Rosario Strait they sailed north into the Strait of Georgia to [|Point Roberts], which they thought was an island and named //Isla de Zepeda//. Continuing north they [|Point Grey] and Point Atkinson, then sailed a short distance into [|Burrard Inlet] near present-day [|Vancouver], [|British Columbia]. [|[3]] The //Santa Saturnina// continued north to [|Texada Island], [|Hornby Island] , and [|Denman Island]. They also found [|Nanaimo Harbour] and named it //Bocas de Winthuysen//. Sailing along [|Galiano Island] and [|Valdes Island] they noted Porlier Pass and gave it its present (Anglicized) name. [|[3]] During the exploration of the Strait of Georgia the crew of the //Santa Santurnina// noted copious amounts of fresh water and correctly deduced that the mouth of a large river lay nearby. It was the [|Fraser River], but the party was unable to determine its location. A great number of whales were seen in the Strait, which led Eliza to later suggest, correctly, a second connection to the ocean. Further, Eliza came to suspect, again correctly, that Nootka Sound was not on the mainland, but rather on an island. [|[3]] The //Santa Saturnina// returned to Port Discovery in late July. The exact route taken is unclear. By this time many of Eliza's sailors were sick, as was Eliza himself. Further exploration was abandoned and the ships soon sailed for Nootka. Eliza transferred Narváez to the //San Carlos// and gave Juan Carrasco command of the //Santa Saturnina//. [|[3]] Sailing west, the ships found [|Port Angeles] on August 2, 1791. They reached Neah Bay on August 7. From there the //San Carlos//, returned to [|Nootka Sound], arriving on November 9. [|[3]] Carrasco, however, was unable or unwilling to beat upwind to Nootka and instead sailed the //Santa Saturnina// south to [|Monterey], [|California] , arriving there on September 16, 1791. The two ships of the expedition of [|Alessandro Malaspina] were at Monterey at the time, having arrived five days earlier. Thus Malaspina, a powerful figure of the Spanish navy at the time, became the first to know about the discovery of the Strait of Georgia, outside of Eliza's sailors at Nootka Sound. Malaspina immediately recognized the strategic importance of further exploration. European hopes of discovering a [|Northwest Passage] were still politically important at the time, and the Strait of Georgia's many promising channels leading east and north represented one of the last realistic possibilities. Malaspina himself had just completed a fruitless search for a Northwest Passage in Alaska. Shortly after his encounter with Carrasco, Malaspina sailed to [|San Blas] and [|Acapulco], where he arranged to have two of his own officers, [|Dionisio Alcalá Galiano] and [|Cayetano Valdés] , take command of two ships for the purpose of fully exploring the Strait of Georgia. [|[5]] After his encounter with Malaspina in Monterey, Carrasco sailed the //Santa Saturnina// to San Blas. He continued to serve the Spanish Navy until at least 1803 as one of the pilots of the San Blas naval department. [|[1]]